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Women's Empowerment in Andhra Pradesh
The women’s movement in Andhra Pradesh originated from the anti arrack
(anti liquor) movement started by the state’s rural women in the 1990s. The
state government built on its momentum to start a women’s literacy movement. In
2000, with World Bank support, it expanded this program as a thrift based
program where women could make small savings, revolve their own resources, and
meet their families’ critical consumption and food needs. The program, earlier
called Velugu and now called the Indira Kranti Patham, has since evolved into a
movement for the all-round empowerment of poor women - social, legal,
political, and economic.
The World Bank’s Andhra Pradesh Rural Poverty Reduction
Project supports
the program. It promotes women's social, economic, legal and political
empowerment to reduce poverty among the poor and the poorest of the poor.
The World Bank project has helped take the women's Self Help Group
movement to all 22 districts of Andhra Pradesh. It has also become the model
for livelihood programs in other states too, including Tamil Nadu and Bihar.
Social, Legal, Political and Economic Empowerment
The women Self Help Groups (SHGs) hold regular weekly meetings, save and repay regularly, and use trained bookkeepers for proper bookkeeping. All SHG members abide by the principles of saying no to child marriages, child labor, domestic violence and wasteful expenditures.
The weekly meetings provide a platform for sharing and discussing broad social, legal, political and economic issues that affect their lives. Issues range from entitlements to land, access to NREGA and PDS, whether teachers and health workers are actually doing the work allotted to them, and women's own rights in the case of domestic violence.
The women discuss family planning, the number of children they should have, and the spacing between births, indicating a significant change in their ability to exercise reproductive choice within the household.
They have also not hesitated to take up difficult issues like domestic violence, the trafficking of women and children, and the jogini system of exploitation.
have outperformed other public schools in terms of regular attendance,
academic results and facilities provided to students, leading to a fall in the
drop out rate from 14.8% in 2001 to 4.3% in 2005-2006.
Fighting
Gender Violence
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7, April, 2007: Mogalamma is barely in her 20s but her harrowing life is etched
on her furrowed face and sunken eyes. Married to an alcoholic, mother to a
mentally-challenged son, her troubles deepened when she was widowed early.
Three years ago, she was raped by the local money-lender and left to die in
the fields of her Chauderpalli village in Mahboobnagar district of Andhra
Pradesh.
Mogalamma with her young son
Mogalamma, who is from the Dalit
community that occupies the lowest rung of India's social hierarchy, she
fought for justice for two years but couldn't crack the protective cordon the
upper castes in her village threw up to protect the money-lender.
"Nobody helped me those two years," says Mogalamma. "The police was not willing to register my case; even the sarpanchdid not help me. It was only the women's group that stood by me. And it is thanks to them that I could even take it up. Then, my own father forced me to seek a compromise and asked me to withdraw the case after the moneylender had been in jail for a few months. But the SHG group supported me and spoke to the higher-ups. Women like me have developed a lot of self-confidence because of this support. My future is now with the group," says Mogalamma says. Today, thanks to the local women's self-help groups (SHG), Mogalamma has not only recovered her dignity, but is able to take care of her and her family's needs. She lives with her parents and child in a spartan house that the SHG helped her get under a government scheme. The SHG gave her a loan to buy a buffalo, whose milk she sells locally. It also helped her get a job cooking mid-day meals at the local primary school. It is also helping her with her child's rehabilitation and treatment. "While he may never be cured completely, at least the school is now allowing him to attend classes," |
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Over 21,000 households have been covered with health insurance on a pilot basis. The community managed risk fund aims to provide quick financial support to meet families’ health expenditure, including during emergencies. 1.2 million women SHG members have purchased life insurance cover.
Disabled Persons
Over 160,000 disabled persons have been mobilized into some 17,500 SHGs and have received support to start new livelihoods.
Land Access for Tribals and the Poor
The project has facilitated the resolution of several land issues affecting the poor including the restoration of illegally occupied land. Para legals have been trained, and efforts are on to establish a land rights center for tribal areas in association with the Law College at Hyderabad, and organize lok adalats (public courts).
Improved Farming Practices
In a forward-looking move, women’s groups have also developed a local
movement against the indiscriminate use of pesticides, covering 186,000 acres
by 2006-07. By replacing chemical and other external inputs with local
knowledge and natural methods of pest management, they are reducing the cost of
cultivation. Cost savings have ranged from about US$40 to US$120 per acre
leading to a 75% increase in the income of a farmer. This has also had positive
effects on farmers’ health status.
Economic EmpowermentSocial empowerment issues have become the basis for the subsequent economic empowerment of women. The program enables women’s organizations to develop the skills to negotiate with market
Political Empowerment
Grassroots leaders developed through the program have contested local
government elections; 32000 candidates have filed their nominations for a
variety of positions, and 9500 women from SHGs and their federations have been
elected at various levels.
ROLE OF
WOMEN IN FREEDOM STRUGGLE IN ANDHRA PRADESH
Women played a significant role in India's Freedom Movement.
Paying a tribute to the outstanding role played by women in the country's
freedom struggle, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of free
India said, "we record our homage and deep admiration for the womanhood of
India, who in the hour of peril for the motherland forsook the shelter of their
homes and with unfailing courage and endurance stood shoulder-to-shoulder with
them the sacrifices and triumphs of the struggle."Andhra Pradesh, like any other part of the country, played a significant role in the freedom struggle. Men, women and children did their best to fight for the common cause. Great leaders like Gadicherla Harisarvotham Rao, Pattabhi Sitaramayya, Tangututri Prakasam Pantulu, Duvvuru Subbamma, Durgabhai Deshmukh, Sangam Lakshmi Bai and others are well known. Stalwarts like Yellapragada Sitkumari, Ammanna Raja and Arutla Kamala Devi have entered into the pages of history. But there are many more who did everything to give us what we have today.
In the freedom Struggle as carried out in Andhra, women participated in large numbers in the Non-cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement, and Quit India Movement. In the constructive programme, especially in the manufacture of Khadar, Women in Andhra did more work than men. They became victims of repression as much as men and several cases their lot and suffering were worse. But they braved all this with that kind of patience and heroism for which the women did even more work than men.
Even though history has brought to light the lives of a number of such persons, still underneath the water lie a number of great women, whose lives are a testimony to the great achievement of the nation.
Role of women in freedom struggle in Andhra Pradesh seeks to analyze the part played by women of Andhra in the Country's liberation movement and takes in its sweep the mist important issues raised by it - issues centering political activism and its implications for the participation of women.
Andhra sees more than threefold
rise in child labour in three years
Andhra sees more than
threefold rise in child labour in three years TNN | Oct 25, 2018, 11.59 PM IST
Printed from Vijayawada: As per the latest official statistics, the number of
child labourers in Andhra Pradesh is once again on the rise. The child labour
force has increased by three and a half times since 2015-16, despite the
efforts put in by the state government. According to the latest official data,
60,038 children between the age of six and 14 years were identified as working
in the state between 2015 and 2017. The child labour force which was 13,294 in
2015-16 has seen a whopping increase to 46,744 in a short span of one year. The
sudden increase has come as a shocker to child rights activists, as Andhra
Pradesh had seen a remarkable decline prior to 2016. But on the contrary, the
last one year has shown an upward trend. During 2011, 13 districts in the AP
together had 2.73 lakh child labour out of which, 43,000 were within the age
group of five to nine years. Out of all the districts that have registered an
increase in the child labour force, West Godavari has recorded the largest - a
whopping 12 times increase. As per the records, the number was 477 in 2015-16,
but by 2016-17, the number has shot up to 5,738. Similarly in Visakhapatnam
district, where the number of children engaged in child labour was 428 in
2015-16, has now risen to 4,818, which is an increase by ten times. In 2015-16,
the major contributors of child labourers were Chittoor, Prakasam and Nellore
districts. But by 2016-17, it was Kurnool which housed the maximum number of
child workers with 6,585 of them, which in 2015-16, was 1,294. The districts of
Prakasam, West Godavari and Nellore are the next in line for the maximum number
of child labourers. The top four districts i.e 7/7/2019 Andhra sees more than
threefold rise in child labour in three years - Times of India
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vijayawada/andhra-sees-more-than-threefold-rise-in-child-labour-in-three-years/articleshowprint/66354422.cms
2/2 Kurnool, Prakasam, West Godavari and Nellore contribute to more than half
of the child labourers in Andhra Pradesh, according to the data. Kadapa and
Vizianagaram, which are regarded as the most backward districts in the Andhra,
have the least number of child labourers. While Kadapa had 1,297 child worker
in 2016-17, Vizianagaram had 1,453 of them.
PLANNING IN TWO DISRICTS OF ANDHRA PRADESH
Women who form half of the population of India (around 49%)
are discriminated in every sphere of life. In spite of five and half decades of
Independence and the introduction of many women welfare programmes with the
provision of specific reservations, women in India are still socially,
economically, politically and culturally continue to be in a disadvantageous
position. One of the research findings indicates that theoretically and
legally, though women are recognized as equal to men, they are still in the
grip of traditional roles and have not freed themselves from the domination of
men1. As women continue to be economically dependent on men, they
are treated inferior to men. In the Indian society, daughter is considered as a
liability while the son is considered as an asset. Experts suggest that
improvement in the status of women expedites the success of family planning.
Therefore, any improvement in the status of women is considered an effective
strategy for making family planning a real success in India as well as in other
developing countries. It was well recognized by the UN General Assembly in 1972
that unless the status of women is improved, no initiatives in family planning
would be successful. Therefore, the development of women is considered 'as the
best contraception'. The position of women is also positively associated with
the adoption of family planning among the couples in India, This means that
when the position of women in the society is higher, the knowledge, attitude
and adoption of family planning are proportionately higher. In the present
study, women's position with respect to family planning behavior in two
districts of Andhra Pradesh is studied and the impacts of other variables such
as occupation, income, possession of property, index on women's social status,
etc. that influence its adoption are analysed. sampling. The subjects consisted
of 600 currently married women in the age group of 15-49 years having at least
one living child. The sample was drawn from thirty randomly selected villages
in Talupula Mandal of Ananthapur distinct
EDUCATION OF WIFE
Educational level of women
appears to be one of the significant factors effecting the adoption of family
planning and fertility behavior. Data from the developed countries indicate that
the education of women increases the opportunities for them to work outside
their homes. Also, education is found to have a positive association with
adoption of family planning. The relationship is
less
consistent in the developing countries. Generally, a positive relationship
appears to have existed between family planning adoption and the educational
level both in the United States and Europe since the late 19th century. Earlier
research in most developing countries also support the fact that there is a
strong positive association between the levels of women's education and the
adoption of family planning. In this study, it was found that 34.7 per cent of the women
were illiterates, while 34.8 per cent were literates with primary education up
to 5th class. About 18.0
per cent of them studied up to secondary and intermediate level. Only 12.5 per
cent had education up to the degree or above.
Among the women who had college education;
it was found that an overwhelming proportion of them (68.0%) practiced
permanent methods of family planning. Similarly, women with education up to
higher secondary level (45.38%) had adopted family planning as compared to
women who studied up to primary level (30.62%). In case of illiterate women,
only 20.19 per cent adopted family planning and majority of them (72.6%) was
not using any method of contraception, it is also similar in case of women with
primary education, as most of them (65.07%)
Occupation
of Wife
Occupation
of wife is one of the important socio-economic status indicators that
influences the contraceptive behavior of women. Some of the studies have
established that working-women are more inclined to adopt one or the other
methods of family planning as compared to housewives. The findings of the study
reveal that among women; white-collar jobholders constituted only 10 per cent
as compared to housewives (49 %) and agricultural labourers (33%).
Among the white-collar jobholders, 68 per cent of women used
permanent methods of family planning as compared to only 40 per cent of the
housewives. Out of the cultivators, 27.7 per cent of women adopted permanent
methods in comparison to only 17 per cent of the agricultural labourers (Table
2). Hence, the study findings indicate that occupation of women is strongly
associated with their family planning behaviour.
Son
Preference
During the last two decades, there has been an increasing
interest in the study of values of children, including son-preference as one of
the major determinants of family planning adoption and fertility behaviour.
Some other studies as well endorse this finding. Preference for son exists more
in the developing countries as compared to the developed regions of the world
due to various socio-cultural and psychological reasons. Therefore, it is
hypothesized that eligible couples usually adopt one or the other family
planning method, only after getting their desired number of sons. Studies
conducted in India and abroad have confirmed that son preference has a
significant influence on the acceptance of contraceptive practices. In the traditional
agrarian societies, particularly in patriarchal societies, sons are preferred
for many reasons such as; sons contribute to the family's economic resources by
working in the farm; family name is carried on through the sons (lineage
transmission), sons are expected to perform funeral rituals, sons support the
parents during sick and old age, sons provide physical strength to the family
and social status in the community. In addition to this, the value dimensions
for son(s) are deeply associated with superstitious, cultural and traditional
beliefs and values. The economic and family continuity (lineage) factors seem to
dominate son preference because people live in patri-lineal .societies prefer
sons. It has often been argued that strong son preference is one of the major
barriers in the adoption of family planning, particularly in the rural
areas". Data presented in Table 5 show that the adoption of family
planning is closely associated with strong son preference. In the present
study, 67 per cent of the respondents had son preference while 33 per cent had
no such preference.
Son
|
Non-
|
Temporary
|
Permanent
|
Total
|
Population
|
preference
|
adopters
|
Adopters
|
Adopters
|
(%)
|
|
Son
|
73.88
|
6.97
|
19.15
|
100.00
|
67.00
|
preference
|
(297)
|
(28)
|
(17)
|
(402)
|
(402)
|
No
|
22.73
|
12.12
|
65.15
|
100.00
|
33.00
|
preference
|
(45)
|
(24)
|
(129)
|
(198)
|
(198)
|
Total
|
57.00
|
8.67
|
34.33
|
100.00
|
100.00
|
(342)
|
(52)
|
(206)
|
(600)
|
(600%)
|
It is seen that 65 per
cent of the women who had no son preference practised permanent methods of
family planning compared to only 19 per cent who practice the same with a son
preference. Data clearly depict that adoption of family planning was significantly
higher among women who have no son preference (significant at 1 % level) as
compared to others who have son preferencer In case of adoption of temporary
methods too, 12 per cent of women with no son preference adopted family
planning compared to only 7 per cent of women who had strong son preference.
TABLE 5
DISTRIBUTION OF WOMEN
BY
CONTRACEPTIVE BEHAVIOUR AND SON
PREFERENCE
Index on Women's Social Status
Women's social status and their position in the society were
also measured in terms of socio-economic status of women, health and
demographic position of women, social equality, modernisation and
socio-economic independence. In the present study an index was developed with
20 variables related to the status of women and women's development and
classified in the following five broad dimensions:
1.
Socio-economic status of
women has been assessed through the variables such as(i) education, (ii)
occupation, (iii) income, and (iv) owning of property.
2.
The demographic status was
assessed through variables such as- (i) age at marriage, (ii) son preference,
(iii) knowledge about infant diseases, and (iy) identification of malnutrition
in children.
3.
Social equality was
assessed through information collected like (i) travel, alone, (ii)
subordination, and. position of women, (iii) married women working along with
men, and (iv) consulting female members in all the important decision-making
processes in the family.
4.
Modernisation was
determined through information obtained like (i) having a personal bank
account, (ii) permission from husband on various matters, (iii) freedom of
wife, and (iv) the level of freedom enjoyed.
SOCIAL INDEPENDENCE
Based on the aforesaid 20 variables, an index
was developed to determine the status of women; and their attitudes related to women's development and modernization of women.
The
status of women was assessed with the help of a chart published by the
Population Crisis Committee, Washington Status of women was measured by taking
all the five indicators, score values including their attitudes towards
woman-development. Each respondent's score was compiled by adding 20 variables
of women's status related to the categories such; as socio-economic position,
health and demographic position of women, social equalities, modernisation and
social independence. In each category, four classified measures were studied to
measure women's general welt being.
After
assigning scores for each of these items, scores, were, compiled and pooled
together for the population as a whole. The total scores were graded and
classified into low or poor, moderate and high status of women. The minimum score
of index was fixed at 20, and the maximum at 59. Based on the overall pooled
scores, the respondents were, classified into 3 categories namely (i) low
status (score 20-32), (ii) moderate status (score 33-34), and (iii) high status
(score 46-59). This tracheotomized classified index on the status of women was
cross tabulated with their contraceptive behaviour.
A positive association was observed while examining the link
between the status of women and the adoption of family planning. It was
observed that the adoption of family planning, by women increased with the rise
in the status of women. Table 6 indicates that in the current study, majority
of women (73%) had a low status, followed by 6 per cent in the medium and 21
percent in the higher status.
It was
found that 65 per cent of women in the higher status (Score value-46 to 59)
category practised permanent methods of family planning as compared to 39 per
cent for those in the moderate status (score value- 33 to 45) category. Only 25
per cent of women in the poor status category adopted the permanent methods of
family planning (Score value- 20 to 32).
TABLE 6
DISTRIBUTION OF WOMEN BY
CONTRACEPTIVE BEHAVIOUR AND INDEX ON SOCIAL STATUS
Social status of
|
Non-
|
Temporary
|
Permanent
|
Total
|
Population
|
women Index
|
adopters
|
Adopters
|
Adopters
|
(%)
|
|
Poor status
|
66.59
|
8.24
|
25.17
|
100.00
|
73.00
|
(score 20-32)
|
(52.63)
|
(36)
|
(110)
|
(437)
|
(437)
|
Moderate status (score 33-45)
|
52.63 (120)
|
7.89
(3)
|
39.47
(15)
|
100.00
(38)
|
6.00
(38)
|
Higher status (score 46-59)
|
24.80
(31)
|
10.40
(13)
|
64.80
(81)
|
100.00 (125)
|
21.00 (125)
|
(600%)
|
(600%)
|
(600%)
|
(600%)
|
(600%)
|
(600%)
|
(Figures in parentheses denote the number of
women)
CONCLUSION
The findings of the present study suggest that the position
of women in the society had greatly influenced the adoption of family planning
by them. The educational level of women emerged as one of the most important
factors with a positive impact on the family planning practice. Majority of
highly educated women adopted family planning. Occupation of women was one of
the important socioeconomic status indicators that influenced contraceptive
behaviour. Annual family income was a composite variable which invariably
impacted on the family planning practice by the subjects. In this study a
positive relationship was seen between the annual income of the family and the
practice of family planning by women. Women, who belonged to the higher income
group of families had a higher proportion of family planning adoption (63%) compared to women in the
low-income group of families. It was also observed that adoption of family
planning was significantly higher among women who possessed property. The
present study revealed that women who have a strong son preference demonstrated
a lower rate of adoption of family planning practices (19%)compared to those who do not (65%).
The above findings indicate the need for policy oriented
researches on the current roles and conditions of women and their impact on
family planning adoption. Education is an essential requirement for improving
the status of women, which in turn, encourages the adoption of family planning.
Importantly steps should be taken to universale female education through formal
and non-formal education programmes. The mind-set of people for a greater value
for son(s) affects the adoption of family
planning which needs to be changed by promoting awareness on equal values for
son and daughters. To support this, property right for the daughter needs to be
effectively implemented.
STATUS OF WOMEN IN
INDIA AND ANDHRA PRADESH
INTRODUCTION
At
the dawn of new millennium Indian women are typically portrayed as house wives
goddesses of homes and great Mothers, The Hindu, (1998). Yet it is generally
known that in reality she submits herself to his unjust demands this hackneyed
image is obviously a reflection of womanhood in Indian society. The male domination, perpetuated either by
economic necessity or social compulsions, alien invasions re-shaped the role of
women in Indian society, Ibid, (1999) the problem is not, of course, unique to
India but certainly deserves public attention as a matter of major priority,
Dreze, Jean and Amartya Sen (1999a)
The focal areas, where
gender disparities are deliberately sustained and meticulously fostered from
time immemorial, are female-male ratio, literacy and education, food and
nutrition, health care system, work participation rate and opportunity to
employment, access to economic resources particularly income and property and
the most important political participation.
An attempt is made in this chapter to ponder over these crucial issues
highlighting the available factual information at international, national and
regional levels.
CONSTITUTIONAL AND LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS RELATING TO
WOMEN
Before analyzing the status of
women in India in a comparative perspective, it would be appropriate to briefly
review the constitutional provisions and legislative measures relating to women
in India. The Constitution of India not
only grants equality to women but also empowers the state to adopt measures of
positive discrimination in favour of women for neutralizing the cumulative
socio-economic, educational, political disadvantage faced by them. To be more precise, Article 14 confers
on men and women equal rights and opportunities in the political, economic and
social spheres. Article 15 prohibits
discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race, caste and
sex. Article 15(3) makes a special
provision enabling the
state to make affirmative
discrimination in favour of women.
Article 16 provides for equality of opportunities in matter of public
appointments for all citizens irrespective of sex. Besides the above
Fundamental Rights, the Constitution also enshrines the following Directive
Principles of State Policy, which though non-enforceable by court of law,
provide guidelines for framing government policies. Article 39(a) mentions that the state shall
direct its policy towards securing all citizens, men and women equally the
right to means of livelihood, while Article 39(c) ensures equal pay for equal
work for both men and women. Article 42
directs the state to make provision for ensuring just and humane conditions of
work and maternity relief for women.
Above all the Constitution imposes a fundamental duty on every citizen
through Article 15(a) and (e) to renounce the practices decorator to the
dignity of women.
In addition to these constitutional
provisions, special legislations have been enacted to make the de jury equality
into de facto one. The state has enacted
the following specific and women related legislations to protect women against
social discrimination, violence, atrocities and also to prevent social evils
like child marriage, dowry, rape, practice of sati etc.
The Child Marriage
Restraint Act of 1976 rises the age for marriage of a girl from 15 years to 18
years and makes offences under this Act cognizable. An amendment brought in 1984 to the Dowry
Prohibitions Act of 1961 made subjection of women to cruelty a cognizable
offence. The second amendment brought in
1986 makes the husband or inlaws punishable if a woman commits suicide within 7
years of her marriage. Also a new
criminal offence of dowry death has been incorporated in the Indian Penal Code. The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act of
1971 legalizes abortion by qualified professionals on humanitarian or medical
grounds. Amendments to criminal law 1983
provide for a punishment of 7 years in ordinary cases of rape and 10 years for
custodial rape cases. The maximum
punishment may go up to life imprisonment.
A new enactment of Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act of
1986 and the Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act 1987 have also been passed to
protect the dignity of women and prevent violence against them as well as their
exploitation. The Immoral Traffic
(Prevention) Act of 1956 as amended and renamed in 1986 makes the sexual
exploitation of male or female a cognizable offence. Hindu Succession Act 1956 enables Hindu Women
to inherit the property of their fathers along with their brothers Unni, Jeemol
(1999). The Factories Act 1948 (Amended
up to 1976) provides for establishment of crèche where 30 women are employed
(including casual and contract laborers).
The Maternity Benefit Act 1961 makes the extension of maternity benefits
mandatory on the part of factories. The
Equal Remuneration of Act of 1976 provides for equal pay for equal work for
both men and women.
FEMALE-MALE RATIOS (FMR)
Female-male ratio (FMR) is one of
the crucial manifestations of the wide spread disparities existing between
females and males. There are remarkable
variations in the FMR in different regions of the world. In Europe and North America, even though
males outnumber females at birth, women tend to out number men substantially
later with an average ratio around 1.05.Dreze, Jean and Amartya Sen (1999a). In
contrast to this in many parts of third world countries, FMR tends to be
substantially below unity. The average
FMR is 0.96 in North Africa, 0.94 in China, Bangladesh and West
Asia. In India, the
FMR averaged around 0.933 in 2001 (as against 0.927 in 1991), which is one of
the lowest in the world.
There are, however, striking regional variations in FMR
between different states, as could be observed from Table –3.1
The FMR is observed to be very low in most parts
of Northern India, and in Union Territories.
For instance, among the Indian states, as per 2001 census, the FMR was
the lowest at 0.861 in Haryana. The
other states with the ascending order of FMR values were Punjab (0.874), Sikkim
(0.875), Uttar Pradesh (0.898) and Jammu & Kashmir (0.900). It is pathetic note that even the developed
states like Punjab and Haryana have one of the lowest FMRs. On the other hand, most of the Southern
states e.g., Tamil Nadu (0.986), Andhra Pradesh (0.978), Orissa (0.972),
Karnataka (0.964) share high FMR.
Table 1: FMR in Different Indian States and UTs
According to 1991 and 2001 Census
Sl. No.
|
India/State/
|
1991
|
2001
|
1
|
Andhra Pradesh
|
0.972
|
0.978
|
2
|
Arunachal Pradesh
|
0.859
|
0.901
|
3
|
Assam
|
0.923
|
0.932
|
4
|
Bihar
|
0.911
|
0.921
|
5
|
Chhatisgarh
|
--
|
0.99
|
6
|
Goa
|
0.967
|
0.960
|
7
|
Gujarat
|
0.934
|
0.921
|
8
|
Haryana
|
0.865
|
0.861
|
9
|
Himachal Pradesh
|
0.976
|
0.970
|
10
|
Jammu & Kashmir
|
0.92
|
0.900
|
11
|
Jharkhand
|
--
|
0.941
|
12
|
Karnataka
|
0.960
|
0.964
|
13
|
Kerala
|
1.036
|
1.058
|
14
|
Madhya Pradesh
|
0.931
|
0.920
|
15
|
Maharashtra
|
0.934
|
0.922
|
16
|
Manipur
|
0.958
|
0.978
|
17
|
Meghalaya
|
0.955
|
0.975
|
18
|
Mizoram
|
0.921
|
0.938
|
19
|
Nagaland
|
0.886
|
0.909
|
20
|
Orissa
|
0.971
|
0.972
|
21
|
Punjab
|
0.882
|
0.874
|
22
|
Rajasthan
|
0.910
|
0.922
|
23
|
Sikkim
|
0.878
|
0.875
|
24
|
Tamil Nadu
|
0.974
|
0.986
|
25
|
Tripura
|
0.945
|
0.950
|
26
|
Uttar Pradesh
|
0.879
|
0.898
|
27
|
Uttaranchal
|
--
|
0.964
|
28
|
West Bengal
|
0.917
|
0.934
|
Union Territories
|
0.840
|
--
|
|
29
|
Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
|
--
|
0.846
|
30
|
Chandigargh
|
--
|
0.773
|
31
|
Dadra & Nagar Haveli
|
--
|
0.811
|
32
|
Daman & Diu
|
--
|
0.709
|
33
|
Delhi
|
--
|
0.821
|
34
|
Lakshadweep
|
--
|
0.947
|
35
|
Pondicherry
|
--
|
1.001
|
INDIA
|
0.927
|
0.933
|
|
Source: Govt. of India (2004), Census
of India: Web site: Sex Ratio
In fact Kerala's (1.04) and Pondicherry’s
(1.001) FMR is greater than unity, a phenomenon akin to developed countries
like Europe and America Ibid, (1999). Even after FMR is adjusted to
overwhelming out-migration of males from Kerala in search of Employment, FMR is
above unity Ibid (1999), between
1991 and 2001; many states improved the FMR even though there is no substantial
improvement at the All India level.
Arunachala Pradesh for instance, improved the FMR position substantially
from 0.860 to 0.901.
In some states like Goa, Gujarat, Haryana,
Himachala Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Madya Pradesh, Maharastra, Punjab, and
Sikkim the FMR has actually declined between 1991 and 2001. Citing the Indian
Express, the Census of India web cited quoted on 12th July 2004 that
the Sex ratio is alarmingly at a low level of 773 per 1000 males in the union
territory of Chandigarh in 2001. This implies that several socio, cultural and
economic factors are constantly at work in India to produce lower FMR.
Strong male preference
to carry out certain rituals in Hindu families, the concept of heir to a
generation, low social status for women, additional social and economic burden
to bring
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